Metacognition and Critical Thinking Among Indonesian College Students: Examining the Role of Cognitive Load as a Moderating Factor

Nur Amin Barokah Asfari; Anjarie Dharmastuti; Rizka Fibria Nugrahani; Laila Indra Lestari; Callista Justine Margandhi; Clay Alcander Marchelius Teguh

doi:10.18326/ijip.v8i1.5574

Authors

Nur Amin Barokah Asfari Universitas Negeri Malang
Anjarie Dharmastuti Universitas Negeri Malang
Rizka Fibria Nugrahani Universitas Negeri Malang
Laila Indra Lestari Universitas Negeri Malang
Callista Justine Margandhi Universitas Negeri Malang
Clay Alcander Marchelius Teguh Universitas Negeri Malang

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18326/ijip.v8i1.5574

Keywords:

Cognitive load, Metacognition, Student

Abstract

This study examined whether cognitive load moderates the relationship between metacognition and critical thinking among students in Indonesia. A total of 201 undergraduate and diploma students participated by completing an online questionnaire using the Indonesian version of the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI), the Leppink et al. adaptation of the Cognitive Load Scale, and the Sosu adaptation of the Critical Thinking Disposition Scale. Results showed that metacognition had a significant positive effect on critical thinking (p<.001), explaining approximately 47-50% of the variance across models. However, intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load did not significantly moderate this relationship. The interaction between metacognitive awareness and critical thinking disposition remains stable across varying levels of perceived cognitive load. These findings highlight metacognition as a robust predictor of critical thinking disposition and suggest that perceived cognitive load may not substantially alter this relationship at the dispositional level. Rather than contradicting Cognitive Load Theory, the results refine its applicability by indicating that cognitive load effects may be more observable in performance-based contexts. Future research may explore whether cognitive load exerts stronger moderating effects on performance-based critical thinking tasks under experimentally manipulated conditions.

References

Aguinis, H. (2004). Regression analysis for categorical moderators. Guilford Press.

Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Reno, R. R. (2010). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions (Reprinted). SAGE.

Akcaoğlu, M. Ö., Mor, E., & Külekçi, E. (2023). The mediating role of metacognitive awareness in the relationship between critical thinking and self-regulation. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 47, 101187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101187

Akpur, U. (2020). Critical, Reflective, Creative Thinking and Their Reflections on Academic Achievement. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 37, 100683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100683

Albab, U., Budiyono, & Indriati, D. (2020). Metacognition skills and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) in mathematics. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1613(1), 012017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1613/1/012017

American Management Association. (2020, March 26). AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher-Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century. American Management Association. https://www.amanet.org/articles/ama-critical-skills-survey-workers-need-higher-level-skills-to-succeed-in-the-21st-century/

Amin, A. Muh., Corebima, A. D., Zubaidah, S., & Mahanal, S. (2020). The Correlation between Metacognitive Skills and Critical Thinking Skills at the Implementation of Four Different Learning Strategies in Animal Physiology Lectures. European Journal of Educational Research, volume–9–2020(volume9-issue1.html), 143–163. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.1.143

Antonio, R., & Prudente, M. (2021). Effectiveness of Metacognitive Instruction on Students’ Science Learning Achievement: A Meta-Analysis. International Journal on Studies in Education, 4(1), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonse.50

Asfari, N. A. B., Widyastuti, T., Utomo, H. B., Permata, S. R. E., Muthmainah, F., & Damaris, C. V. (2024). Adaptasi Inventori Kesadaran Metakognitif (MAI) versi Indonesia: Instrumen Pengukuran Baru bagi Mahasiswa di Era Digital. 13(001 Des), 749–760. https://doi.org/10.58230/27454312.1347

Beaton, D. E., Bombardier, C., Guillemin, F., & Ferraz, M. B. (2000). Guidelines for the Process of Cross-Cultural Adaptation of Self-Report Measures: Spine, 25(24), 3186–3191. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-200012150-00014

Bensley, D. A. (2023). Critical Thinking, Intelligence, and Unsubstantiated Beliefs: An Integrative Review. Journal of Intelligence, 11(11), 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110207

Byrne, B. M. (2016). Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Third Edition (0 ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315757421

Cendana, C. C. A., & Harjono, H. (2021). Korelasi Persepsi Kemampuan Metakognitif dan Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Siswa SMA di Masa Pandemi Covid-19. Phenomenon : Jurnal Pendidikan MIPA, 11(2), 255–269. https://doi.org/10.21580/phen.2021.11.2.6380

Cholily, Y. M., Jamil, A. F., & Dintarini, M. (2024). Metacognitive Regulation Strategies Among Indonesian Undergraduate Students During Conic Sections Conceptualization. AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan, 16(2), 948–959. https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v16i2.5252

Chumdari, C., Atmojo, I. R. W., Ardiansyah, R., & Shintawati, A. (2023). The Effect of Metacognition Awareness on the Critical Thinking Skills of Elementary School Teachers and Prospective Elementary School Teachers. AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v15i4.4527

Cohen, J. (2009). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd, 2nd, reprint). Psychology Press.

De Bruin, A. B. H., Janssen, E. M., Waldeyer, J., & Stebner, F. (2025). Cognitive Load and Challenges in Self-regulation: An Introduction and Reflection on the Topical Collection. Educational Psychology Review, 37(3), 65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-025-10042-2

Dessie, E., Gebeyehu, D., & Eshetu, F. (2023). Enhancing critical thinking, metacognition, and conceptual understanding in introductory physics: The impact of direct and experiential instructional models. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 19(7), em2287. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/13273

Dwyer, C. P., Campbell, D., & Seery, N. (2025). An Evaluation of the Relationship Between Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking: Complementary Metacognitive Processes or Strange Bedfellows? Journal of Intelligence, 13(2), 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13020023

Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 12, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2013.12.004

Efklides, A. (2020). Editorial. Metacognition and Learning, 15(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09221-z

Funder, D. C., & Ozer, D. J. (2019). Evaluating Effect Size in Psychological Research: Sense and Nonsense. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 2(2), 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245919847202

Golden, B. (2023). Enabling critical thinking development in higher education through the use of a structured planning tool. Irish Educational Studies, 42(4), 949–969. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2023.2258497

Gorbunova, A., Lange, C., Savelyev, A., Adamovich, K., & Costley, J. (2024). The Interplay of Self-Regulated Learning, Cognitive Load, and Performance in Learner-Controlled Environments. Education Sciences, 14(8), 860. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14080860

Heijltjes, A., Van Gog, T., Leppink, J., & Paas, F. (2014). Improving critical thinking: Effects of dispositions and instructions on economics students’ reasoning skills. Learning and Instruction, 29, 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.07.003

Hwang, J., Hand, B., & French, B. F. (2023). Critical thinking skills and science achievement: A latent profile analysis. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 49, 101349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101349

Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive Load Theory: How Many Types of Load Does It Really Need? Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9150-7

Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (Fifth edition). GUILFORD.

Ku, K. Y. L., & Ho, I. T. (2010). Metacognitive strategies that enhance critical thinking. Metacognition and Learning, 5(3), 251–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-010-9060-6

Kuhn, D. (2022). Metacognition matters in many ways. Educational Psychologist, 57(2), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2021.1988603

Kusuma, A. S., & Busyairi, A. (2023). Relationship between metacognitive skills and critical thinking in elementary science lectures through the guided inquiry model. Jurnal Pijar Mipa, 18(5), 727–735. https://doi.org/10.29303/jpm.v18i5.5225

Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van Der Vleuten, C. P. M., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2013). Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive load. Behavior Research Methods, 45(4), 1058–1072. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0334-1

Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van Gog, T., Van Der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2014). Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load. Learning and Instruction, 30, 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.12.001

Li, S., Wang, Z., Wang, J., & He, J. (2024). Metacognition predicts critical thinking ability beyond working memory: Evidence from middle school and university students. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 53, 101572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101572

Magno, C. (2010). The role of metacognitive skills in developing critical thinking. Metacognition and Learning, 5(2), 137–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-010-9054-4

Mauluddin, Y., & Fahmi, D. (2025). Analisis Beban Kerja Kognitif Mahasiswa Pada Saat Transisi Perkuliahan dari Online ke Offline. Jurnal Kalibrasi, 22(2), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.33364/kalibrasi/v.22-2.1254

Murtadho, F. (2021). Metacognitive and critical thinking practices in developing EFL students’ argumentative writing skills. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v10i3.31752

Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2003). Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_8

Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2020). Cognitive-Load Theory: Methods to Manage Working Memory Load in the Learning of Complex Tasks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(4), 394–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420922183

Rahayu, S., Verawati, N. N. S. P., & Islamiah, A. F. (2019). Effectiveness of the Problem-Based Learning Model with Worksheet Assisted on Students’ Critical Thinking Ability. Lensa: Jurnal Kependidikan Fisika, 7(2), 51. https://doi.org/10.33394/j-lkf.v7i2.2686

Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing Metacognitive Awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19(4), 460–475. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033

Scott, C. L. (2015). The Futures of Learning 2:" What Kind of Learning in the 21st Century? Education Research and Foresight.

Seufert, T., Hamm, V., Vogt, A., & Riemer, V. (2024). The Interplay of Cognitive Load, Learners’ Resources and Self-regulation. Educational Psychology Review, 36(2), 50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09890-1

Sosu, E. M. (2013). The development and psychometric validation of a Critical Thinking Disposition Scale. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 9, 107–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2012.09.002

Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4

Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive Load Theory. In Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 55, pp. 37–76). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8

Sweller, J. (2020). Cognitive load theory and educational technology. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09701-3

Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 261–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5

Terblanche, E. A. J., & De Clercq, B. (2021). A critical thinking competency framework for accounting students. Accounting Education, 30(4), 325–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2021.1913614

Veenman, M. V. J. (2012). Metacognition in Science Education: Definitions, Constituents, and Their Intricate Relation with Cognition. In A. Zohar & Y. J. Dori (Eds.), Metacognition in Science Education (Vol. 40, pp. 21–36). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2132-6_2

Yang, C., & Luo, L. (2025). Introduction to the Special Issue: Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity. Journal of Intelligence, 13(4), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040046

Zeitlhofer, I., Zumbach, J., & Schweppe, J. (2024). Complexity affects performance, cognitive load, and awareness. Learning and Instruction, 94, 102001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102001

Zepeda, C. D., & Nokes-Malach, T. J. (2023). Assessing Metacognitive Regulation during Problem Solving: A Comparison of Three Measures. Journal of Intelligence, 11(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11010016

Zohar, A., & Barzilai, S. (2013). A review of research on metacognition in science education: Current and future directions. Studies in Science Education, 49(2), 121–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2013.847261